Jessica Boynton

Hiraeth

“And there, the weeping willow trees
Bear the old harps that sang amain,
The lads’ wild anguish fills the breeze,
Their blood is mingled with the rain.”
- Ellis Evans

The legendary lore of the Welsh… beautiful words expressing a somber sadness, an ache, a hiraeth. The Welsh long for home, yearn for the Wales of the past… the Wales of warriors and peace, the days of danger and beauty. But this home has long since vanished under the rule of a foreign force, and the few left to remember it live in a community threatened by linguistic and cultural extinction.

Wales is located in the South Western portion of England. The Welsh-Wales speech community consists of those regions within Wales where Welsh is commonly spoken. (Trosset, 1993) This does not include the Welsh speaking community in Patagonia, which was founded by a group of people who believed that the only way to save their Welsh identity was to get as far away form England as possible, or the small communities of Welsh speakers that inhabit Canada and the United States among other countries. (Henken, 1996)

These communities notwithstanding, the number of members in the Welsh-Wales speech community is hard to determine, because it is difficult to define who exactly is considered truly Welsh. To many, those who live in Wales, but do not speak Welsh, are not part of the speech community. Those who speak Welsh and live their lives within the constraints of Welsh society are the Cymru Glan 'True Welsh.' (Trosset, 1993) According to this assumption, there are about 435,000 members of the Welsh-Wales speech community. (2001 Census)

In an attempt to better understand the Welsh speech community, we will examine the history of a Welsh national war hero, as well as all the oppressions that Wales has endured since the battles were lost, and we will survey the tense relations between the English and the Welsh.

In the next section, we will investigate some of the prominent traits of Welsh culture, such as nationalism to an anti-English extent, the Welsh language (embraced as a cultural entity) and the reliance upon music for an essential sense of tradition. Then we will discover that even the smallest nuances of language reflect culture in a study of the consonant mutations employed by the Welsh, and how those mutations come to reflect the Welsh aspect of humility.

Next we will ascertain that the Welsh invest immense attention into the theme of enjoyment. We will analyze the speech acts used in Welsh to communicate enjoyment, and reveal the worldview hidden therein.

Finally, we will explore the language revitalization efforts that currently take place in Wales.

Gan Herio Cymru Heddyw I Ddangos Cymro Gwell

Canmol Dy Fro A Thrig Yno

‘Praise Thy Country and Stay There’

Culture consists of all those things that make us like our own people and unlike other people. Rituals, beliefs, foods, dress, language and rules of social interaction all compose the opus of our beings. Culture can be used as a tool of solidarity, as well as for a justification for discrimination, but will always be a defining aspect of a people that see themselves as being bound together.

The Cymru Glan desperately cling to their symbols of solidarity, their means of cultural cohesion. Some of the traits they use to define themselves are: nationalism, language, and music. In order to understand the significance of these choices, each must be examined in greater detail.

2.1 A Nation without a State

Owain Glyndwr was the last true Prince of Wales, the last who was verily supported by the Welsh people. It is curious then that after so many centuries without a voice the Welsh still fight against the now familiar foreign rule of the English. This is partly due to the reverence with which the past glories of Wales are held. Gwyn A. Williams says “... the Welsh mind is still haunted by its lightening-flash vision of a people that was free.” (Henken, 1996) While 700 years have passed since Wales was truly free, occasional revolutions (like that of Glyndwr) have kept alive a distant hope for freedom, although the headstrong passion needed for true revolution slumbers.

Over the years, however, as nationalist views have spread the rebellious spirit has regained strength. (Henken, 1996) Nowadays, there are even political gangs that embrace the violence used by Owain Glyndwr. Meibion Glyndwr ‘Brothers of Glyndwr’ systematically burns down English vacation homes in Wales that raise the property values beyond what the native Welsh can afford, much like Glyndwr used to burn down the homes of his enemies. They make use of the nationalist imagery behind arson to gain Welsh support in what would otherwise be considered overzealous rebellion. (Henken, 1996)

Less brutal nationalist efforts have achieved greater ends. The first Welsh University was founded in 1872. Cymru Fydd ‘Wales of the Future,’ a nationalist society, was founded in 1886, and has since worked to establish Welsh legislature, improve Welsh education and make more accurate renditions of Welsh history available to the people. (Henken, 1996)

Y Lolfa, one of the most popular publishers in Wales, carries on the message of true Welsh history and culture, adding its own diatribes against English policy in its materials. Despite pricy lawsuits for libel, the company is flourishing. (Abley, 2003) Publishing books and articles addressing every subject from children’s literature to local talent to political materials, Y Lolfa gives voice to the common Welshman and Welshwoman and raises awareness within Wales of what is important to Welsh culture. (www.ylolfa.com) Some would assert that it even dictates what is important to Welsh pop culture, as it is one of the few Welsh language sources available.

Wales has come quite far in creating a national identity for itself. It has stood against the test of time, and proximity of foreign rule. The truest danger, though, remains the subversion of Welsh land, culture, and language by English dominance. The threat lies not in England, but in Anglicized Wales. (Trosset, 1993)

2.2 A Manner of Speaking

“... English has a coldness about it. Expressing things through Welsh seems to come from... one’s whole being” (Abley, 2003)

The political climate in Wales has inspired some changes in the way the Welsh interact with strangers. When Welsh speakers meet strangers, they almost always speak English because they work under the assumption that if their interlocutor is unknown, s/he must not speak Welsh. The Cymru Glan, after all, are a community, and should therefore be familiar with each other. (Trosset, 1993) Within this community-based mentality one can find the root of the Welsh language - intimacy. Speaking Welsh shows a familiarity with others present, so the language on its own lends itself to a more sentimental encounter. (Trosset, 1993)

Many of the community gatherings in Welsh Wales are conducted solely in the Welsh language. Some gatherings even have rules prohibiting the use of English by key participants. This creates a clear distinction between Welsh and non-Welsh activities; one can gage the level of Welshness by the degree of use of the language. (Trosset, 1993)

The Welsh have an elitist attitude toward their language, however. Historically, the Welsh have looked down upon non-native speakers of Welsh. Even using perfect Welsh, with a less anglicized vocabulary and careful grammar, can be interpreted as unwelcomely foreign, because perfect Welsh is not vernacular Welsh, and therefore does not denote intimacy with the Cymru Glan. As a response to the discrimination they have received from English speakers, the Welsh tend to discriminate against even Welsh speaking Englishmen. (Trosset, 1993)

In the Welsh community of Sansea, however, bilingualism has gained high esteem among the local elite. The local university gives Welsh lessons in eight locations, thus promoting the Welsh language to non-native speakers, and there are 53 Welsh speaking playgroups for young children, thus creating more native speakers. (Abley, 2003) This community perhaps heralds a more open approach to Welsh language use, and maybe even a broader definition of Welshness.

2.3 On a More Optimistic Note

Music or, more precisely, Eisteddfod is the very heart of Welsh culture. As a cultural tradition, it can be traced back to 1176, to the castle of Lord Rhys, where poets and musicians from all over the country were invited to compete for a chair. The local carpenters still uphold this tradition by combining to create an exquisite chair to be given to the National Eisteddfod champion. (www.eisteddfod.org)

While the Eisteddfod is a competition, emphasis is put on simply participating, or even just attending. It serves as the hub of Welsh society. It is where the Cymru Glan feel the freedom to act and think purely Welsh. (Trosset, 1993) Aside from stage performances of Welsh music, poetry, and folk dances in a competition, this function also serves as an informational forum, with booths for the Welsh Folk Song Society, the Welsh Language Society, the Women’s Institute, and Harp Makers among others. (Trosset, 1993) Even a group of Welsh farmers holds a local Eisteddfod every at times. Music truly permeates every level and facet of Welsh culture. (Abley, 2003)

Eisteddfod is not the only sort of musical performance common to Welsh culture. There are other traditional forms of music, like cerdd dant (folk singing to harp accompaniment) and even rock groups, like Catatonia and Super Furry Animals. (Abley, 2003)

Music has been intrinsic to Welsh culture since before the days of the English invasion. This directly correlates with the preservation of the old Welsh language; the most curious aspect of the Welsh language as it currently stands is its similarity to Old Welsh. Both continuation of the age old Eisteddfod festival and the preservation of the old language exemplify the desire that the Welsh feel to return to the days of sovereignty - the lightening-flash of freedom. (Worrall, 2001)

2.4 Dusk or Dawn

Welsh Culture is defined by a steadfast holding to tradition and nationalism, the use of the Welsh language, and music. While old Welsh traditions do stand strongly in Welsh society, one might ask how a nation lost in the past can survive and grow. Perhaps Wales has found a way to save time in a bottle. Or perhaps this dependence on yesterday is what puts Wales in its somewhat threatened position today.

A Ddarlleno, Ystyried

‘He who reads, let him reflect’

What is it that a child knows when a child knows a language? And how much of that knowledge correlates to what a child knows about culture, overtly or covertly? To answer these questions, one must first understand the correlation between language and culture, then study the covert uses of language in a language group (in this case mutations in Welsh) including the language feature and the rules governing it.

3.1 Language and Culture

Language and culture are intrinsic to one another. It is not possible to delineate the boundary between the two, because each exists within and because of the other. For instance, the title of this section reads ‘he who reads…’ utilizing the masculine pronoun as a neutral pronoun, a practice common in many languages; a concept common to many patrilineal cultures. Which came first, the macho mentality, or the deference to masculine pronouns? Each practice reinforces the other. (Lakoff, 2000)

Historically, regions that have been invaded, but allowed to keep speaking their native language, have preserved a cultural identity (for example, Wales, Spain, and Quebec) whereas regions that have not been allowed, for whatever reason, to maintain use of a native language have lost cultural identity. Likewise, immigrants who do not maintain their native language lose cultural identity. For instance, in the United States, except for a few very concentrated areas of immigrants, one can no longer tell if someone else’s family came from Ireland, England, or even Nigeria or Japan through anything more than physical appearance. The culture slowly disintegrates without a language to define it. (Lakoff, 2000)

The Welsh language and culture are in danger of just such a disintegration. Welsh is actually a healthiest of all the Celtic languages. Other members of this family include Manx, Cornish, Breton, Irish, and Gaelic – Manx and Cornish are both extinct. The Celtic language family has been identified as being more closely related to the Romance language family than any other Proto-Indo-European family. (Trosset, 1993) The Celtic languages use the Roman alphabet, utilize the copula, include indicative and subjunctive moods, and undergo mutations. (Thorne, 1993)

3.2 The X Factor

Consonant mutations in Welsh represent the substitution of one consonant (or consonant cluster) for another under certain circumstances. Welsh uses three different types of mutation: soft mutation, nasal mutation and spirant mutation. David Thorne (1993), a Linguistics professor at the University of Wales, provides an overview of consonant mutations in Welsh, shown in Table 1:

The graphemes used in the chart represent the orthographic symbols, since Dr. Thorne does not provide the phonetic transcription of the Welsh orthography. However, the graph shows that, for example, under certain circumstances the initial consonant P will undergo three different changes, depending upon which mutation it undergoes: it will become either B under soft mutation, Mh under nasal mutation or Ph under spirant mutation. The initial consonants T, C, B, D, G, Ll, Rh, and M undergo similar processes.

Soft mutation generally converts voiceless plosives to their voiced counterparts - voiceless plosive P becomes voiced plosive B - or changes voiced plosives into the nearest form of voiceless fricative the language allows - voiced plosive B becomes voiceless fricative F - or changes voiceless liquids into their voiced counterparts - voiceless liquid Ll becomes voiced liquid L.

Nasal mutation converts plosives into the nearest nasal allowed in the language - voiceless velar plosive C becomes voiced velar nasal Ngh. And spirant mutation makes voiceless plosives into the nearest fricative the language allows - voiced dental plosive T becomes voiceless dental fricative Th [θ]. The conditions under which these mutations take place are discussed in the two following sections.

3.3 Laying Down the Law

The rules governing the use of mutation are plentiful. Soft mutation takes place under no less than fifty different contexts, ranging from “a feminine singular noun following an article” to “a noun, adjective or verb-noun that follows neu ‘or.’” (Thorne, 1993) Nasal mutation is slightly less popular, occurring only after certain pronouns, numerals, and prepositions, and spirant mutation occurs in a dozen or so contexts, such as following certain conjunctions and prepositions. (Thorne, 1993)

So, by the rules of mutation the word /cyllell/ becomes [gyllell] ‘knife’ when following the article y ‘the’ because it is “a feminine singular noun following an article” and therefore undergoes soft mutation. The phonetic change (in this case ‘c’ to ‘g’) is automatic; the speaker wouldn’t even realize that it has occurred. The speaker, in fact, would think s/he is saying cyllell, although if someone were to actually pronounce the ‘c’ as ‘c,’ rather than as ‘g,’ it would “sound funny.” This illustrates the case of underlying representation versus surface representation. The process occurs as follows in Example 2:

Example 2
The lexicon provides the word cyllell for knife
The article y is added
The mutation rule is applied
The speaker pronounces gyllell instead of cyllell

A more technical representation of this mutation would appear as example 3:

Example 3
/y cyllell/
c ‡ g
[y gyllell]

This process occurs in all languages in some form or another and makes up part of the answer to the question “what does a child know when s/he knows a language?” It is one of the unspoken rules that seem to just be magically adopted by children, although a more biological and analytical process is likely at work. Among the finer points of a linguistic grammar, this process can differentiate a native speaker from a non-native speaker.

3.4 Formality

Another interesting use of mutations is a more socio-linguistic feature. While there are many clear-cut examples dictating when mutations must be employed, mutations are optional with proper nouns. The use of mutation in proper nouns correlates with the perceived formality of the written language. (Thorne, 1993)

For instance, Welsh place names may be mutated in literature, and personal names may be mutated in formal texts. Also, brand names and titles of literary works are often mutated in formal texts. What occurs here is a choice of register use. This form of mutation does not influence the vernacular, but it does draw a line between what is perceived as high and low literature, or at least what the author wants to be perceived as high or low. (Thorne, 1993) Use of this formality marker occurs less than one might assume because as a whole the Welsh pride themselves in their casual disposition and therefore would be unlikely to utilize proper noun mutation under most circumstances. (Trosset, 1993)

3.5 End Words

In the use of Welsh mutations, we catch a glimpse of the answers to our initial questions. What does a child know when a child knows a language? Well, in the case of native Welsh speakers, a child knows how to “properly” mutate initial consonants or consonant clusters. But this knowledge is so intrinsic, so covert, that even an adult native speaker would doubtfully be able to put the rule into words, or even realize that the mutation has occurred. How does this knowledge correlate to culture? The more overt use of mutations in formal literature underscores a need to delineate formality in such contexts, as well as revealing a hesitation to be seen as formal. But also, within the realm of language acquisition, we find some of the bones of culture acquisition. The two are ‘found out’ together. The processes that occur in the brain in the acquisition of language are still under question by even the world’s top linguists, but we know that it does happen, flawlessly in most cases, and it mirrors the cultural rules that a child does not even know s/he knows.

Mwynhau

Enjoyment

A speech act is a statement or exchange of statements formulated to reach a desired goal. The way each culture uses a speech act to reach that goal reflects cultural norms and expectations. The study of a certain culture’s speech acts, then, reveals these expectations. The study of Welsh speech acts concerning enjoyment reveal a unique and exquisite holistic view of the world and egalitarian ideals as well as embracing emotionality.

4.1 The Script

The word in question here is Mwynhau, which does not have an exact translation into English, but comes from the same root as Mwynhad ‘enjoyment’ and Myynhan ‘enjoy’. The word is used in situations involving activities done by choice, during which one does not have to be serious, and only for activities executed in the company of others. (Trosset, 1993)

The word is used in a ritual exchange as follows in example 1:

Example 1
a)
Dych chi wed mwynhau?
‘Have you enjoyed?’
b)
Do diolch.
‘Yes, thanks.’

The question is asked of those returning from vacations and the answer is required. To respond in the negative would be to violate the premise of the ritualized speech. (Trosset, 1993)

Another use of the word comes in a more sincere, if just as formulated, form:

Example 2
Dych chi wedi mwynhau eich hunan
Are you after enjoying your self
‘Did you enjoy yourself’?

This phrase is used in discussing social gatherings and cultural performances and, while a negative response is rare enough to turn heads, it is acceptable. The reason for an expectation of affirmation, in varying degrees, concerning the concept of mynhau will be addressed later. For now a deeper study of some aspects of Welsh culture is in order.

4.2 A Pointillist Landscape

An important aspect of the Welsh concept of enjoyment lies in the Welsh concept of the world. Where in many cultures (ours included) an activity is conducted to achieve an end result, the Welsh tend to conduct activities merely for the joy of the activity itself. (Trosset, 1993)

This tendency stems from the Welsh view of the world as a gestalt, rather than as a system of fragments. For instance, if a Welsh party were to decide to go bird-watching, the trip would not entail the identification of as many birds as possible (the judgment of the quality of the trip depending on the number of birds identified) but rather would include discussions of family life, stopping to admire plant-life and mostly just walking around. Enjoyment is not measured by achievement as much as by completeness of experience. (Trosset, 1993) The Welsh try to experience things in a casual rather than intense way, with a broad rather than deep focus. They are not as end-oriented as the English, for instance. (Trosset, 1993)

4.3 On Equal Ground

Another cultural trait that taps into the theme of enjoyment is that of equality. The Welsh pride themselves on their egalitarian practices, and strive to not differentiate between social and educational standing - although, if one uses English in the wrong setting, one’s position in the eyes of Welsh society will indeed suffer.

Therefore, crucial to the enjoyment of all present is the upkeep of these egalitarian ideals. Not only is there no hierarchy in activities qualifying for the term Mynhau, putting all present on equal footing overall, but the objective quality of the activity in question doesn’t even matter if it was enjoyed by the participants. For instance, if a group attends a concert and the performance is bad, but they still have fun (and the performer seems to be having fun as well), the activity would qualify as being enjoyable. (Trosset, 1993)

4.4 King of Hearts

All these cultural traits culminate in the Welsh identity of emotionality. The Welsh try to uphold the value of feeling over analyzing, being happy over being smart. Remember that, after an activity, the Welsh ask “was it enjoyable?” not “was it interesting?” Also, the expected answer is the affirmative. (Trosset, 1993)

This ritual occurs because mynhau is used to address those things associated with Welsh culture, things which should inherently be enjoyed by those truly Welsh. The emphasis on enjoyment serves of a confirmation of a cultural concept held dearly by the Welsh. They need that their emotionality be venerated and, perhaps more importantly, they need the belief that every aspect of their culture is enjoyed by every member of their culture. The theme of mynhau underscores also the holistic view the Welsh have of the world, as an intensely directed activity will simply not be enjoyed, and therefore not be termed mynhau. This Quasimodo concept is also reflected in the social equality necessary to all things mynhau, because the Welsh have never seen themselves as concerned with social standing and self importance.

Overall, Mynhau endures not only as a symbol of the true Welsh, but also as an encoded prayer – a hope that the old Welsh ways now and forever will fulfill the needs and desires of the people.

Da Gadael Pob Da Fel Y Mae

‘Leave Well Alone’

One of the major concerns of the modern Welsh is the vitality of the Welsh cultural identity. Many traits characterize the Welsh persona, such as musical ability, emotionality, and nationalism, but perhaps the most important criterion for Welshness remains the ability to speak the Welsh language. (Trosset, 1993) To the Cymru Glan, the maintenance of the Welsh language is absolutely necessary if the Welsh culture is to continue existing, which is why the relatively recent language revitalization efforts are so important.

The revitalization efforts emphasize historical Wales, so an understanding of the history of the Welsh language and culture is necessary to understand the movement. Then a study of different players in the movement, such as the Welsh Language Board, will illustrate in greater detail the struggle at hand. Finally, a survey of possible futures for the Welsh language community will be presented.

5.1 Yesteryear

Historically, the Welsh people date back to the days before Celtic inhabitance (which means that they have been there since before 500 BC). They, like the Basques, survived as a people (although the original culture and language of the Welsh did not survive as well as those of the Basques) on the fringes of the new Celtic society. They adopted a Celtic language and culture, and over centuries flourished as a community. They were known for their music and bardic poetry, as well as for their hospitality, although they were regarded as a warrior people. (Worrall, 2001)

Then, in the 13th century, Wales fell under English rule. Over the centuries that followed, the English government passed laws devised specifically to undermine the Welsh identity, such as laws prohibiting the use of the Welsh language in schools, and mandating the sole use of English in government settings. Despite periodic rebellions (such as that of mythic war-hero, Owain Glyndwr (Henken, 1996)), Wales began to loose its distinctive flavor, slowly assimilating to the dominating culture. (Trosset, 1993)

5.2 The Natives are Restless

As an answer to this cultural subversion, the Welsh recently devised a different sort of rebellion. Rather than attempting to claim land or sovereignty (which still are issues with which the people struggle) they bent their will toward maintaining their language, in the hopes that important elements of the culture will inherently be maintained with it.

The most prolific player in the language revitalization game in Wales is the Welsh Language Board (WLB). The main goal of the WLB is to promote the use of the Welsh language in everyday life. The WLB has championed language acts mandating the use of bilingual road signs and official documents, also – as mandated by the Education Act of 1988 - providing eleven years of Welsh language study for all students in Welsh schools. The WLB also funds schools to facilitate their following the newly passed legislature. (www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org)

The WLB also founded TWF ‘growth’ (also a convenient acronym for “The Welsh Family”). This program aims to promote bilingualism within the family setting. The program cites research conducted to study the advantages of bilingualism for children, claiming cognitive, economic, cultural, educational and social advantages. For instance, studies have shown that bilingual children think more flexibly because they have multiple words for each concept. (www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org) TWF publicizes these findings, in hopes that the Welsh language will gain greater use as a vernacular in homes that would otherwise stress the use of English.

5.3 A Day Away

As grim as the outlook for the Welsh language sometimes seems, Welsh actually has the strongest footing of any of the Celtic languages. While use of the language has definitely diminished in the past five hundred years, the past few decades have shown a marked improvement. The language, however, has not yet achieved security. While use in political and social settings has increased, Welsh is not used as a vernacular as much as a healthier language would. The future of the Welsh language, therefore, remains uncertain. While it is entirely possible that Welsh will continue its uprising and celebrate a total revitalization, it is also entirely possible that the Welsh language will become increasingly anglicized until it is little more than a dialect of English. A pillar of the Welsh community, the language is steeped in primeval beauty, but does this give it the strength to survive?

The Welsh have historically clung to their roots, all of those things which once were and may one day return. They continue to idolize yesterday’s heroes, like Owain Glyndwr, and await his return from slumber. They have endured numerous oppressions since his day, but hesitate to fight for that which they think they deserve because nobody has come to rescue them. No war heroes have arisen, no soldiers have marched back from the caves of Snowdonia.

And yet heroes have arisen. The nationalists and the linguists and the musicians all battle daily for the survival of the Welsh way of life. They embody what remains of the Welsh culture, and strive to make it thrive, give it life and being.

The language itself gives voice to the people… consonant mutations reinforce humility, speech acts reaffirm the Welsh worldview of a holistic existence, an ideal of equality, an embracement of emotionality.

It is because of this that the Welsh language must be revitalized. A different kind of war must be fought, armed with pens and computers, a new kind of war hero has taken up the fight against the hiraeth, giving back a homeland of language and culture.

Bibliography

Abley, Mark. Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003.

Henken, Elissa. National Redeemer: Owain Glyndwr in Welsh Tradition. New York: Cornell University Press, 1996.

Lakoff, Robin. The Language War. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000.

Thorne, David. A Comprehensive Welsh Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1993.

Trosset, Carol. Welshness Performed. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1993.

www.bwrdd-yr-iaith.org accessed 11-21-03

www.eisteddfod.org accessed 12-06-03

www.scuttlebuttsmallchow.com accessed 12-10-03

www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001 accessed 9-11-03

www.ylolfa.com accessed 12-06-03

Worrall, Simon. “Wales: Finding its Voice.” National Geographic June. 2001: 62 – 83.